5 Jun
Model aircraft are miniature replicas of actual aircraft, designed to fly in our very own backyards or designated flying fields. They can be used as a fun hobby or used by professionals for test flights and other research purposes. There are several types of model aircraft: free flight, control line, radio-controlled, and static models. Among these, the most popular and fun to use are radio-controlled or more specifically the remote control helicopter.
If you are new to the model aircraft world, it can be a daunting experience. But everyone starts somewhere, and with a bit of patience and practice, you’ll be soaring through the skies in no time. Although there are different types of model aircraft, we will focus on the remote control helicopter as it is a great starting point for beginners and provides numerous possibilities for advanced flight as capabilities increase.
When it comes to choosing your model, it’s important to consider what you want out of your flying experience. There are gas-powered helicopters, electric helicopters, and even high-tech drones. Each type of remote control helicopter offers different flying experiences. Electric models are often lighter and require less maintenance, making them good for beginners. Gas-powered models are more powerful and can offer a more realistic flying experience.
Flying a remote control helicopter can be a little tricky at first, but with practice, it becomes an exhilarating and rewarding hobby. The key to gaining control is to start slowly. Get used to the controls, learn how to take off and land, and eventually start taking on more challenging maneuvers. When learning to fly, it’s important to start in a wide open space with good visibility and no obstructions. Never fly near people or pets, and be aware of local regulations regarding remote control aircraft.
While enjoying your remote control helicopter, remember that maintenance and care are essential for a lasting experience. Regular checks for any damage, especially after a crash, are necessary. Check the propellers, the power systems, and the structural integrity.
Moreover, all batteries should be properly cared for. This includes making sure they’re fully charged before a flight, but not overcharged, and giving them time to cool off before and after charging. Batteries should be stored in a cool, dry place and routinely checked for any signs of puffing or leakage.
From choosing the right model to learning how to fly, caring for your remote control helicopter means more than just enjoying its flight. With the right skills and knowledge, you can maximize your flying experience and prolong the life of your aircraft. Remember, it is not about how fast you can fly but instead how well you can control and care for your aircraft. Safe flying!
11 Mar
Radio Control (RC) aviation is a thrilling hobby attracting individuals from different walks of life. Among the different types of RC aircrafts, air plane RC presents an exciting world of possibilities and adventures. From high-flying jets, unique scale replicas to the intricate helicopters like the sab raw 580 helicopter, the choices are endless.
Air Plane RC, or just RC Plane, refers to small model aircrafts that are controlled remotely using a hand-held transmitter and a receiver within the craft. The signal transmitted from the controller is received by the receiver, activating the motors and enabling the plane’s various movements in flight.
The design, construction, and flight of RC planes can range from simple to complex, depending on the level of the hobbyist. Beginners may opt for ready-to-fly models which are pre-assembled and require minimal setup, while more experienced flyers tend to prefer building their own planes from kits or from scratch, allowing for full customization.
Regardless of the complexity, all air plane RC contain similar basic components. A typical RC airplane consists of a body (fuselage), wings, tail, a propulsive mechanism, and control surfaces. The control surfaces of an RC plane typically include the ailerons, the rudder, and the elevator. The ailerons control roll; the rudder affects the yaw; and the elevator controls the pitch. Together, these surfaces enable the RC plane to move in different directions.
The heart of an air plane RC is its electronic system, which includes the transmitter, receiver, servos, and motor. The transmitter sends the control signals. The receiver picks up these signals. The servos interpret the received signals and convert them into mechanical movement to control the plane’s speed and direction. The motor powers the propeller to provide the thrust necessary for flying.
Exploring the realms of air plane RC, one cannot miss the exceptional sab raw 580 helicopter. SAB, an Italian company renowned in the world of RC helicopters, has introduced the RAW 580, a model designed for maximum performance.
The sab raw 580 helicopter is particularly tailored for advanced RC hobbyists due to its intricate controls and demands. With its high-grade components, precision mechanisms, and remarkable aesthetics, the RAW 580 interestingly blends the complexity of a helicopter with the aerodynamics of a plane. For expert hobbyists, mastering the flight of this incredible machine is a real accomplishment.
In conclusion, the air plane RC hobby is a fascinating world that offers unique challenges, learning opportunities, and fun for everyone. From basic models to advanced helicopters like the sab raw 580 helicopter, RC aviation provides a fulfilling and exhilarating experience for hobbyists of all levels. It’s more than just a hobby—it’s a passion that brings dreams of flying into reality.
29 Nov
Model airplanes have been enchanting audiences of all ages for generations. With roots dating back to 2000 BCE when Egyptians crafted scaled bird models, these dynamic replicas have evolved into a beloved hobby and profession. Today, individual hobbyists, collectors, and even large aeronautical companies engage in the creation and use of model airplanes for leisure, exhibitions, and scientific explorations.
In the world of model aircraft, there are two primary categories: static and flying models. Static model airplanes, typically a favorite among collectors, are non-flying replicas designed for static displays. On the other hand, flying models, also known as aeromodels, are built to fly. Both categories have their unique attributes that appeal to different enthusiasts, but equally capture the excitement, intricacies, and beauty of aviation.
Static model airplanes are representations of various aircraft at a smaller scale. Meant for display purposes, these are often meticulously designed and loaded with details to closely mirror the full-scale versions. From commercial jets, military planes to historic aircraft, the array of static models are expansive. They often come in kits, need assembly and painting, and many enthusiasts find joy in this intricate process.
Flying model airplanes, on the other hand, offer the tangible sensation of flight. They come in various formats such as free flight (which fly without any form of control from the operator), control line (flown within the restrictions of a line connecting to the operator), and radio-controlled. The latter has gained enormous popularity given the advances in technology and provides the most authentic flying experience.
Radio-controlled (RC) airplanes bring the flying experience alive. Equipped with wireless communication, operators use a hand-held transmitter to communicate with a receiver within the airplane, controlling its direction, speed, and altitude. Novice pilots might prefer electric-powered RC aircraft for their ease of use and maintenance. These are powered by electric motors and a battery, similar to an electric skateboard for sale.
Advanced model flyers might lean towards gas-powered variants that offer more power and longevity, albeit the complexities of a gas engine. Regardless of the choice of power, flying models bring immense gratification in seeing an object you assembled take to the skies.
Aside from leisure, flying model airplanes also play a significant role in aerodynamic research. Wind tunnel tests with scale models have been pivotal in understanding flight mechanics. Today, drone technology borrows heavily from the world of model airplane, driving innovations and new applications.
The shared experience of model airplane building and flying also blossoms into a sense of community. Many cities have model airplane clubs where enthusiasts convene to fly their models, share building techniques, and even organise competitions. These gatherings contribute to shared learning and the enriched experience of the hobby.
In conclusion, model airplanes represent a perfect blend of craftsmanship, science, and pure joy. Whether you’re a longtime aviation enthusiast or someone looking for a new hobby, these miniatures of the sky promise a sense of achievement like no other. When you fly a model airplane, you don’t just control an aircraft; you keep a tradition alive—a tradition of exploration, humanity’s fascination with flight, and the insatiable pursuit of pushing boundaries.
21 Aug
General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a multirole jet fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force (USAF). Designed as a lightweight day fighter, it evolved into a successful all-weather multirole aircraft. Over 4,400 aircraft have been built since production was approved in 1976. Though no longer being purchased by the U.S. Air Force, improved versions are still being built for export customers. In 1993, General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing business to the Lockheed Corporation, which in turn became part of Lockheed Martin after a 1995 merger with Martin Marietta.
The Fighting Falcon is a dogfighter with numerous innovations including a frameless bubble canopy for better visibility, side-mounted control stick to ease control while maneuvering, a seat reclined 30 degrees to reduce the effect of g-forces on the pilot, and the first use of a relaxed static stability/fly-by-wire flight control system that makes it a highly nimble aircraft. The F-16 has an internal M61 Vulcan cannon and has 11 hardpoints for mounting weapons, and other mission equipment. Although the F-16’s official name is “Fighting Falcon”, it is known to its pilots as the “Viper”, due to it resembling a viper snake and after the Battlestar Galactica Colonial Viper starfighter.
In addition to USAF active, reserve, and air national guard units, the aircraft is used by the USAF aerial demonstration team, the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds, and as an adversary/aggressor aircraft by the United States Navy. The F-16 has also been procured to serve in the air forces of 25 other nations.
Experience in the Vietnam War revealed the need for air superiority fighters and better air-to-air training for fighter pilots. Based on his experiences in the Korean War and as a fighter tactics instructor in the early 1960s Colonel John Boyd with mathematician Thomas Christie developed the Energy-Maneuverability theory to model a fighter aircraft’s performance in combat. Boyd’s work called for a small, lightweight aircraft with an increased thrust-to-weight ratio. In the late 1960s, Boyd gathered a group of like-minded innovators that became known as the Fighter Mafia and in 1969 they secured DoD funding for General Dynamics and Northrop to study design concepts based on the theory.
Air Force F-X proponents remained hostile to the concept because they perceived it as a threat to the F-15 program. However, the Advanced Day Fighter concept, renamed F-XX gained civilian political support under the reform-minded Deputy Secretary of Defense David Packard, who favored the idea of competitive prototyping. As a result in May 1971, the Air Force Prototype Study Group was established, with Boyd a key member, and two of its six proposals would be funded, one being the Lightweight Fighter (LWF). The Request for Proposals issued on 6 January 1972 called for a 20,000-pound (9,100 kg) class air-to-air day fighter with a good turn rate, acceleration and range, and optimized for combat at speeds of Mach 0.6–1.6 and altitudes of 30,000–40,000 feet (9,100–12,000 m). This was the region where USAF studies predicted most future air combat would occur. The anticipated average flyaway cost of a production version was $3 million. This production plan, though, was only notional as the USAF had no firm plans to procure the winner.
Five companies responded and in 1972, the Air Staff selected General Dynamics’ Model 401 and Northrop’s P-600 for the follow-on prototype development and testing phase. GD and Northrop were awarded contracts worth $37.9 million and $39.8 million to produce the YF-16 and YF-17, respectively, with first flights of both prototypes planned for early 1974. To overcome resistance in the Air Force hierarchy, the Fighter Mafia and other LWF proponents successfully advocated the idea of complementary fighters in a high-cost/low-cost force mix. The “high/low mix” would allow the USAF to be able to afford sufficient fighters for its overall fighter force structure requirements. The mix gained broad acceptance by the time of the flyoff between the prototypes, and would define the relationship of the LWF and the F-15.
The first YF-16 was rolled out on 13 December 1973, and its 90-minute maiden flight was made at the Air Force Flight Test Center (AFFTC) at Edwards AFB, California, on 2 February 1974. Its actual first flight occurred accidentally during a high-speed taxi test on 20 January 1974. While gathering speed, a roll-control oscillation caused a fin of the port-side wingtip-mounted missile and then the starboard stabilator to scrape the ground, and the aircraft then began to veer off the runway. The GD test pilot, Phil Oestricher, decided to lift off to avoid crashing the machine, and safely landed it six minutes later. The slight damage was quickly repaired and the official first flight occurred on time. The YF-16’s first supersonic flight was accomplished on 5 February 1974, and the second YF-16 prototype first flew on 9 May 1974. This was followed by the first flights of the Northrop’s YF-17 prototypes on 9 June and 21 August 1974, respectively. During the flyoff, the YF-16s completed 330 sorties for a total of 417 flight hours; the YF-17s flew 288 sorties, covering 345 hours.
Increased interest would turn the LWF into a serious acquisition program. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) allies Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Norway were seeking to replace their F-104G fighter-bombers. In early 1974, they reached an agreement with the U.S. that if the USAF ordered the LWF winner, they would consider ordering it as well. The USAF also needed to replace its F-105 and F-4 fighter-bombers. The U.S. Congress sought greater commonality in fighter procurements by the Air Force and Navy, and in August 1974 redirected Navy funds to a new Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF) program that would be a navalized fighter-bomber variant of the LWF. The four NATO allies had formed the “Multinational Fighter Program Group” (MFPG) and pressed for a U.S. decision by December 1974. The U.S. Air Force then advanced its plans to announce the LWF winner from May 1975 to the beginning of the year, and accelerated testing.
To reflect this more serious intent to procure a new fighter-bomber design, the LWF program was rolled into a new Air Combat Fighter (ACF) competition in an announcement by U.S. Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger in April 1974. Schlesinger also made it clear that any ACF order would be for aircraft in addition to the F-15, which extinguished opposition to the LWF. ACF also raised the stakes for GD and Northrop because it brought in further competitors intent on securing the lucrative order that was touted at the time as “the arms deal of the century”. These were Dassault-Breguet’s Mirage F1M-53, the SEPECAT Jaguar, and a proposed derivative of the Saab 37 Viggen named the “Saab 37E Eurofighter”. Northrop offered the P-530 Cobra, which was very similar to its YF-17. The Jaguar and Cobra were dropped by the MFPG early on, leaving two European and the two U.S. candidates. On 11 September 1974, the U.S. Air Force confirmed firm plans to place an order for the winning ACF design sufficient to equip five tactical fighter wings. On 13 January 1975, Secretary of the Air Force John L. McLucas announced that the YF-16 had been selected as the winner of the ACF competition.
The chief reasons given by the Secretary for the decision were the YF-16’s lower operating costs, greater range and maneuver performance that was “significantly better” than that of the YF-17, especially at near-supersonic and supersonic speeds. Another advantage was the fact that the YF-16 – unlike the YF-17 – employed the Pratt & Whitney F100 turbofan engine, which was the same powerplant used by the F-15; such commonality would lower the unit costs of engines for both programs.
Shortly after selection of the YF-16, Secretary McLucas revealed that the USAF planned to order at least 650 and up to 1,400 of the production F-16 version. In the Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF) competition, the Navy announced on 2 May 1975 that it selected the YF-17 as the basis for what would become the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet.
The U.S. Air Force initially ordered 15 “Full-Scale Development” (FSD) aircraft (11 single-seat and four two-seat models) for its flight test program, but this was reduced to eight (six F-16A single-seaters and two F-16B two-seaters). The YF-16 design was altered for the production F-16. The fuselage was lengthened by 10.6 in (0.269 m), a larger nose radome was fitted to house the AN/APG-66 radar, wing area was increased from 280 sq ft (26 m2) to 300 sq ft (28 m2), the tailfin height was decreased slightly, the ventral fins were enlarged, two more stores stations were added, and a single side-hinged nosewheel door replaced the original double doors. These modifications increased the F-16’s weight approximately 25% over that of the YF-16 prototypes.
Manufacture of the FSD F-16s got underway at General Dynamics’ Fort Worth, Texas plant in late 1975, with the first example, an F-16A, being rolled out on 20 October 1976, followed by its first flight on 8 December. The initial two-seat model achieved its first flight on 8 August 1977. The initial production-standard F-16A flew for the first time on 7 August 1978 and its delivery was accepted by the USAF on 6 January 1979. The F-16 was given its formal nickname of “Fighting Falcon” on 21 July 1980, entering USAF operational service with the 388th Tactical Fighter Wing at Hill AFB on 1 October 1980.
On 7 June 1975, the four European partners, now known as the European Participation Group, signed up for 348 aircraft at the Paris Air Show. This was split among the European Participation Air Forces (EPAF) as 116 for Belgium, 58 for Denmark, 102 for the Netherlands, and 72 for Norway. These would be produced on two European production lines, one in the Netherlands at Fokker’s Schiphol-Oost facility and the other at SABCA’s Gossellies plant in Belgium; production would be divided among them as 184 and 164 units, respectively. Norway’s Kongsberg Vaapenfabrikk and Denmark’s Terma A/S also manufactured parts and subassemblies for the EPAF aircraft. European co-production was officially launched on 1 July 1977 at the Fokker factory. Beginning in mid-November 1977, Fokker-produced components were shipped to Fort Worth for assembly of fuselages, which were in turn shipped back to Europe (initially to Gossellies starting in January 1978); final assembly of EPAF-bound aircraft began at the Belgian plant on 15 February 1978, with deliveries to the Belgian Air Force beginning in January 1979. The Dutch line started up in April 1978 and delivered its first aircraft to the Royal Netherlands Air Force in June 1979. In 1980 the first aircraft were delivered to the Royal Norwegian Air Force by SABCA and to the Royal Danish Air Force by Fokker.
Since then, a further production line has been established at Ankara, Turkey, where Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) has produced 232 Block 30/40/50 F-16s under license for the Turkish Air Force during the late 1980s and 1990s, and has 30 Block 50 Advanced underway for delivery from 2010; TAI also built 46 Block 40s for Egypt in the mid-1990s. Korean Aerospace Industries opened another production line for the KF-16 program, producing 140 Block 52s from the mid-1990s to mid-2000s. If India selects the F-16IN for its Medium Multi-Role Combat Aircraft procurement, a sixth F-16 production line will be established in that nation to produce at least 108 fighters.
One change made during production was the need for more pitch control to avoid deep stall conditions at high angles of attack, this issue was known about in development but had originally been discounted. Model tests of the YF-16 conducted by the Langley Research Center revealed a potential problem, but no other laboratory was able to duplicate it. YF-16 flight tests were not sufficient to expose the issue, it required later flight testing on the FSD aircraft to demonstrate there was a real concern. In response, the areas of the horizontal stabilizer were increased 25%; this so-called “big tail” was introduced on the Block 15 aircraft in 1981 and retrofitted later on earlier production aircraft. Besides significantly reducing (though not eliminating) the risk of deep stalls, the larger horizontal tails also improved stability and permitted faster takeoff rotation.
In the 1980s, the Multinational Staged Improvement Program (MSIP) was conducted to evolve new capabilities for the F-16, mitigate risks during technology development, and ensure the aircraft’s worth. The program upgraded the F-16 in three stages. The MSIP process permitted the introduction of new capabilities quicker, at lower costs and with reduced risks, compared to traditional independent programs to upgrade and modernize aircraft. The F-16 has been involved in other upgrade programs including service life extension programs in the 2000s.
The F-16 is a single-engined, supersonic, multi-role tactical aircraft. The F-16 was designed to be a cost-effective combat “workhorse” that can perform various kinds of missions and maintain around-the-clock readiness. It is much smaller and lighter than its predecessors, but uses advanced aerodynamics and avionics, including the first use of a relaxed static stability/fly-by-wire (RSS/FBW) flight control system, to achieve enhanced maneuver performance. Highly nimble, the F-16 can pull 9-g maneuvers and can reach a maximum speed of over Mach 2.
The Fighting Falcon includes innovations such as a frameless bubble canopy for better visibility, side-mounted control stick to ease control during combat maneuvers, and reclined seat to reduce the effect of g-forces on the pilot. The F-16 has an internal M61 Vulcan cannon in the left wing root and has 11 hardpoints for mounting various missiles, bombs and pods. It was also the first fighter aircraft purpose built to sustain 9-g turns. It has a thrust-to-weight ratio greater than one, providing power to climb and accelerate vertically.
Early models could also be armed with up to six AIM-9 Sidewinder heat-seeking short-range air-to-air missiles (AAM), including a single missile mounted on a dedicated rail launcher on each wingtip. Some variants can also employ the AIM-7 Sparrow medium-range radar-guided AAM, and more recent versions can be equipped with the AIM-120 AMRAAM. It can also carry other AAM; a wide variety of air-to-ground missiles, rockets or bombs; electronic countermeasures (ECM), navigation, targeting or weapons pods; and fuel tanks on eleven hardpoints – six under the wings, two on wingtips and three under the fuselage.
The F-16 design employs a cropped-delta planform incorporating wing-fuselage blending and forebody vortex-control strakes; a fixed-geometry, underslung air intake inlet supplying airflow to the single turbofan jet engine; a conventional tri-plane empennage arrangement with all-moving horizontal “stabilator” tailplanes; a pair of ventral fins beneath the fuselage aft of the wing’s trailing edge; a single-piece, bird-proof “bubble” canopy; and a tricycle landing gear configuration with the aft-retracting, steerable nose gear deploying a short distance behind the inlet lip. There is a boom-style aerial refueling receptacle located a short distance behind the rear of the canopy. Split-flap speedbrakes are located at the aft end of the wing-body fairing, and an arrestor hook is mounted underneath the aft fuselage. Another fairing is situated at the base of the vertical tail, beneath the bottom of the rudder, and is used to house various items of equipment such as ECM gear or drag chutes. Several later F-16 models, such as the F-16I variant of the Block 50 aircraft, also have a long dorsal fairing “bulge” that runs along the “spine” of the fuselage from the rear of the cockpit to the tail fairing; these fairings can be used to house additional equipment or fuel.
The air intake was designed to be “far enough forward to allow a gradual bend in the air duct up to the engine face to minimize flow losses and far enough aft so it wouldn’t weigh too much or be too draggy or destabilizing.”
The F-16 was designed to be relatively inexpensive to build and much simpler to maintain than earlier-generation fighters. The airframe is built with about 80% aviation-grade aluminum alloys, 8% steel, 3% composites, and 1.5% titanium. Control surfaces such as the leading-edge flaps, tailerons, and ventral fins make extensive use of bonded aluminum honeycomb structural elements and graphite epoxy laminate skins. The F-16A had 228 access panels over the entire aircraft, about 80% of which can be reached without work stands. The number of lubrication points, fuel line connections, and replaceable modules was significantly reduced compared to its predecessors.
Although the USAF’s LWF program had called for an aircraft structural life of only 4,000 flight hours, and capable of achieving 7.33 g with 80% internal fuel, GD’s engineers decided from the start to design the F-16’s airframe life to last to 8,000 hours and for 9-g maneuvers on full internal fuel. This proved advantageous when the aircraft’s mission was changed from solely air-to-air combat to multi-role operations. Changes over time in actual versus planned operational usage and continued weight growth due to the addition of further systems have required several structural strengthening programs.
Aerodynamic studies in the early 1960s demonstrated that the phenomenon known as “vortex lift” could be beneficially harnessed by the adoption of highly swept wing configurations to reach higher angles of attack through use of the strong leading edge vortex flow off a slender lifting surface. Since the F-16 was being optimized for high agility in air combat, GD’s designers chose a slender cropped-delta wing with a leading edge sweep of 40° and a straight trailing edge. To improve its ability to perform in a wide range of maneuvers, a variable-camber wing with a NACA 64A-204 airfoil was selected. The camber is adjusted through the use of leading-edge and trailing edge flaperons linked to a digital flight control system (FCS) that automatically adjusts them throughout the flight envelope. The F-16 has a moderate wing loading, which is lower when fuselage lift is considered.
This vortex lift effect can be increased by the addition of an extension of the leading edge of the wing at its root, the juncture with the fuselage, known as a strake. The strakes act as a sort of additional slender, elongated, short-span, triangular wing running from the actual wing root to a point further forward on the fuselage. Blended fillet-like into the fuselage, including along with the wing root, the strake generates a high-speed vortex that remains attached to the top of the wing as the angle of attack increases, thereby generating additional lift. This allows the aircraft to achieve angles of attack beyond the point at which it would normally stall. The use of strakes also allows a smaller, lower-aspect-ratio wing, which in turn increases roll rates and directional stability, while decreasing aircraft weight. The resulting deeper wingroots also increase structural strength and rigidity, reduce structural weight, and increase internal fuel volume.
The F-16 was the first production fighter aircraft intentionally designed to be slightly aerodynamically unstable. This technique, called “relaxed static stability” (RSS), was incorporated to further enhance the aircraft’s maneuver performance. Most aircraft are designed with positive static stability, which induces an aircraft to return to its original attitude following a disturbance. This hampers maneuverability, as the tendency to remain in its current attitude opposes the pilot’s effort to maneuver; on the other hand, an aircraft with negative static stability will, in the absence of control input, readily deviate from level and controlled flight. Therefore, an aircraft with negative static stability will be more maneuverable than one that is positively stable. When supersonic, a negatively stable aircraft actually exhibits a more positive-trending (and in the F-16’s case, a net positive) static stability due to aerodynamic forces shifting aft between subsonic and supersonic flight. At subsonic speeds the fighter is constantly on the verge of going out of control.
To counter this tendency to depart from controlled flight—and avoid the need for constant minute trimming inputs by the pilot, the F-16 has a quadruplex (four-channel) fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system (FLCS). The flight control computer (FLCC), which is the key component of the FLCS, accepts the pilot’s input from the stick and rudder controls, and manipulates the control surfaces in such a way as to produce the desired result without inducing a loss of control. The FLCC also takes thousands of measurements per second of the aircraft’s attitude, and automatically makes corrections to counter deviations from the flight path that were not input by the pilot; coordinated turn is also obtained in such a way that it updates itself by thousands of instructions and produces the required control deflection that comes from dynamics of F-16, thereby allowing for stable flight. This has led to a common aphorism among F-16 pilots: “You don’t fly an F-16; it flies you.”
The FLCC further incorporates a series of limiters that govern movement in the three main axes based on the jet’s current attitude, airspeed and angle of attack, and prevent movement of the control surfaces that would induce an instability such as a slip or skid, or a high angle of attack inducing a stall. The limiters also act to prevent maneuvering that would place more than a 9 g load on the pilot or airframe.
Though the FLCC’s limiters work well to limit each axis of movement, it was discovered in early production flight testing that “assaulting” multiple limiters at high angles of attack and low speed can result in angles of attack far exceeding the 25-degree threshold of limiting. This is colloquially referred to as simply “departing”. Depending on the attitude of the aircraft, it may settle into a deep stall; a near-freefall at 50° to 60° AOA, either upright or inverted. In this “pocket” of very high AOA, the aircraft’s attitude is stable, but being far above stall AOA, the control surfaces do not operate effectively. Further, the pitch limiter of the jet, sensing the high AOA, “freezes” the stabilators in an extreme pitch-up or pitch-down in an attempt to recover. To recover, an override is provided that disables the pitch-limiting, which then allows the pilot to “rock” the aircraft’s nose up and down using pitch control, eventually overcoming the 50° threshold and achieving a nose-down attitude which will reduce AOA and allow a return to controlled flight.
Unlike the YF-17 which featured a FBW system with traditional hydromechanical controls serving as a backup, the F-16’s designers took the innovative step of eliminating mechanical linkages between the stick and rudder pedals and the aerodynamic control surfaces. The F-16’s sole reliance on electronics and wires to relay flight commands, instead of the usual cables and mechanical linkage controls, gained the F-16 the early moniker of “the electric jet”. The quadruplex design permits “graceful degradation” in flight control response in that the loss of one channel renders the FLCS a “triplex” system. The FLCC began as an analog system on the A/B variants, but has been supplanted by a digital computer system beginning with the F-16C/D Block 40.
The F-16 program has suffered from controls that were sensitive to static electricity or electrostatic discharge (ESD), including 70–80% of the electronics on the C/D models sensitive to ESD in the early 1980s.
The F-16A/B was originally equipped with the Westinghouse AN/APG-66 fire-control radar. Its slotted planar-array antenna was designed to be sufficiently compact to fit into the F-16’s relatively small nose. In uplook mode, the APG-66 uses a low pulse-repetition frequency (PRF) for medium- and high-altitude target detection in a low-clutter environment, and in downlook employs a medium PRF for heavy clutter environments. It has four operating frequencies within the X band, and provides four air-to-air and seven air-to-ground operating modes for combat, even at night or in bad weather. The Block 15’s APG-66(V)2 model added a new, more powerful signal processor, higher output power, improved reliability, and increased range in a clutter or jamming environments. The Mid-Life Update (MLU) program further upgrades this to the APG-66(V)2A model, which features higher speed and memory.
The AN/APG-68, an evolution of the APG-66, was introduced with the F-16C/D Block 25. The APG-68 has greater range and resolution, as well as 25 operating modes, including ground-mapping, Doppler beam-sharpening, ground moving target, sea target, and track-while-scan (TWS) for up to 10 targets. The Block 40/42’s APG-68(V)1 model added full compatibility with Lockheed Martin Low-Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infra-Red for Night (LANTIRN) pods, and a high-PRF pulse-Doppler track mode to provide continuous-wave (CW) target illumination for semi-active radar-homing (SARH) missiles like the AIM-7 Sparrow. The Block 50/52 F-16s initially received the more reliable APG-68(V)5 which has a programmable signal processor employing Very-High-Speed Integrated Circuit (VHSIC) technology. The Advanced Block 50/52 (or 50+/52+) are equipped with the APG-68(V)9 radar which has a 30% greater air-to-air detection range, and a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) mode for high-resolution mapping and target detection and recognition. In August 2004, Northrop Grumman received a contract to begin upgrading the APG-68 radars of the Block 40/42/50/52 aircraft to the (V)10 standard, which will provide the F-16 with all-weather autonomous detection and targeting for the use of Global Positioning System (GPS)-aided precision weapons. It also adds SAR mapping and terrain-following (TF) modes, as well as interleaving of all modes.
The F-16E/F is outfitted with Northrop Grumman’s AN/APG-80 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar, making it only the third fighter to be so equipped. Northrop Grumman is continuing development upon this latest radar, to form the Scalable Agile Beam Radar (SABR). In July 2007, Raytheon announced that it was developing a new Raytheon Next Generation Radar (RANGR) based on its earlier AN/APG-79 AESA radar as an alternative candidate to Northrop Grumman’s AN/APG-68 and AN/APG-80 for the F-16.
The powerplant first selected for the single-engined F-16 was the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200 afterburning turbofan, a slightly modified version of the F100-PW-100 used by the F-15. Rated at 23,830 lbf (106.0 kN) thrust, it remained the standard F-16 engine through the Block 25, except for new-build Block 15s with the Operational Capability Upgrade (OCU). The OCU introduced the 23,770 lbf (105.7 kN) F100-PW-220, which was also installed on Block 32 and 42 aircraft; the main difference being a Digital Electronic Engine Control (DEEC) unit, which improved engine reliability and reduced the risk of engine stalls. Added to the F-16 production line in 1988, the “-220” also supplanted the F-15’s “-100,” increasing commonality. Many of the “-220” jet engines on Block 25 and later aircraft were upgraded from mid-1997 to the “-220E” standard, which enhanced reliability and engine maintainability; the changes allowed for a 35% reduction of unscheduled engine removals.
Development of the F100-PW-220/220E was the result of the USAF’s Alternate Fighter Engine (AFE) program (colloquially known as “the Great Engine War”), which also saw the entry of General Electric as an F-16 engine provider. Its F110-GE-100 turbofan required modification of the F-16’s inlet; the original inlet limited the GE jet’s maximum thrust to 25,735 lbf (114.5 kN), while the new Modular Common Inlet Duct allowed the F110 to achieve its maximum thrust of 28,984 lbf (128.9 kN) in afterburner. (To distinguish between aircraft equipped with these two engines and inlets, from the Block 30 series on, blocks ending in “0” (e.g., Block 30) are powered by GE, and blocks ending in “2” (e.g., Block 32) are fitted with Pratt & Whitney engines.)
Further development by these competitors under the Increased Performance Engine (IPE) effort led to the 29,588 lbf (131.6 kN) F110-GE-129 on the Block 50 and 29,160 lbf (129.4 kN) F100-PW-229 on the Block 52. F-16s began flying with these IPE engines on 22 October 1991 and 22 October 1992, respectively. Altogether, of the 1,446 F-16C/Ds ordered by the USAF, 556 were fitted with F100-series engines and 890 with F110s. The United Arab Emirates’ Block 60 is powered by the General Electric F110-GE-132 turbofan, which is rated at a maximum thrust of 32,500 lbf (144.6 kN), the highest ever developed for the F-16 aircraft.
Due to their ubiquity, F-16s have participated in numerous conflicts, most of them in the Middle East.
The F-16 is being used by the USAF active, reserve, and Air National Guard units, the USAF aerial demonstration team, the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds, and as an adversary/aggressor aircraft by the United States Navy.
The U.S. Air Force has flown the F-16 in combat during Operation Desert Storm in 1991, and in the Balkans later in the 1990s. F-16s have patrolled the no fly zones in Iraq during Northern Watch and Southern Watch. They have served during the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq in the 2000s. Most recently, the U.S. has deployed them to enforce the no-fly zone in Libya.
The F-16 is scheduled to remain in service with the U.S. Air Force until 2025. The planned replacement is the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, which will gradually begin replacing a number of multirole aircraft among the program’s member nations.
The F-16’s first air-to-air combat success was achieved by the Israeli Air Force (IAF) over the Bekaa Valley on 28 April 1981, against a Syrian Mi-8 helicopter, which was downed with cannon fire. On 7 June 1981, eight Israeli F-16s, escorted by F-15s, executed Operation Opera, their first employment in a significant air-to-ground operation. This raid severely damaged Osirak, an Iraqi nuclear reactor under construction near Baghdad, to prevent the regime of Saddam Hussein from using the reactor for the creation of nuclear weapons.
The following year, during Operation Peace for Galilee (Lebanon War) Israeli F-16s engaged Syrian aircraft in one of the largest air battles involving jet aircraft, which began on 9 June and continued for two more days. Israeli Air Force F-16s were credited with numerous air-to-air kills during the conflict. F-16s were also used in their ground-attack role for strikes against targets in Lebanon. IAF F-16s participated in the 2006 Lebanon War and during the attacks in the Gaza strip in December 2008.
During the Soviet-Afghan war, between May 1986 and January 1989, Pakistan Air Force (PAF) F-16s shot down at least 10 intruders from Afghanistan.
The Pakistan Air Force has used its F-16s in various foreign and internal military exercises, such as the “Indus Vipers” exercise in 2008 conducted jointly with Turkey. Since May 2009, the PAF has also been using their F-16 fleet to attack militant positions and support the Pakistan Army’s operations in North-West Pakistan against the Taliban insurgency.
The Royal Netherlands Air Force, Belgian Air Force, Turkish Air Force, Royal Danish Air Force, and Royal Norwegian Air Force, and Venezuela have flown the F-16 on combat missions. A Dutch F-16AM shot down a Serbian MiG-29 during the Kosovo War in 1999. Belgian and Danish F-16s also supported operations in Kosovo.
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1 Aug
Collecting diecast vehicles consists of acquiring specific items based on your particular interests, such as airplanes, cars, trains, ship models, etc. Although some people just accumulate them, this is a passionate hobby for most folks, in which the genuine collector organizes carefully those items to catalog them and proudly display them. The depth and breadth of every collection is as unique as every collector is, and they are the ones that determine if a collection will focus on a specific subtopic within their area of general interests or if they only want to accumulate determined items. As an example, a collector may collect diecast vehicles trying to accumulate any or all of them, while another individual could prefer collecting only a model, brand or marquee. Diecast vehicles and toys are an example of a collection that is never-ending. When you start collecting these vehicles it is like traveling back in time until the early decades of the 20th century when manufacturers such as Tootsie Toys in the United States, or Dinky Toys in the United Kingdom first produced the first diecast toys. Because the term “diecast” refers to any product produced using the casting method, the first models on the market were small cars or vans without plastic windows. Over time, the vehicles were made of plastic and metal, more commonly an alloy of zinc and aluminum, including not only cars but also scale models of airplanes and trains, although automobiles are still the favorites among all of them. With more than 50 popular brands including Altaya, Bandai, Brooklin, CMC, Dragon Wings, Exoto, Guisval, Ixo, Jada, Johnny Ligntning, Kyosho, Lledo, Matchbox, Minichamps, Norev, Plasticos Argentinos, Racing Champions, RCCA, Revell, Tekno, Tomica, UT Models, Vitesse, and the popular Hot Wheels introduced by Mattel, among others.
Like with other popular collecting fields, diecast collecting has specialized commercial dealers that trade vehicles and related accessories. In fact, many individuals start collecting cars as a hobby to become dealers at a later date, either turning this hobby into a profession, or as a means to get extremely rare vehicles for their own collections, while they help other collectors in their pursuit of showcase-model cars. In the United Kingdom, there are teams specialized in visiting small and larger toy fairs to acquire incredible cars, in good conditions from Dinky Toys and Corgi, the main British collectibles companies. Dinky Toys was first introduced in early 1934 by Meccano Ltd of Liverpool, England, presenting a new line of modeled miniatures, as diecast vehicles were first known.
Corgi Toys began producing scale model cars until July 1956 under the supervision of Mettoy Playcraft Ltd. in Swansea, Wales, along with Dinky Toys, and the American Tootsie Toys, which is one of the most wanted brands of collectors worldwide. However, there are many other popular manufacturers from the United States, Japan, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, etc.
Rarely a diecast collector completes a collection because new models of cars are always available, and collecting never stops, you can always expand or start an entirely new collection in a subtopic, such as cars, then sport cars, vans, etc. From Hot Wheels to Matchbox and from Bandai to Tomica, including all the other brands, diecasts models include popular automobile marques. Packard, MG, Morris, Hillman, Austin, Alfa Romeo, Bentley, Citroen, Opel, Triumph, Talbot, Gwynne, Vauxhall, Reliant, Singer, Bristol, Wolseley, Innocenti, Healey, Siddeley, BSA, Darracq, Crossley, Jowett, Frazer Nash, Northern, Renault, Ford, Chrysler, and the classics Jaguar, Mercedes Benz and Rolls Royce, just to name a few.
Broadening a collection is not that hard, even when focusing on a single marquee, because there are different models from the twenties, thirties, forties, fifties, sixties, seventies, etc. Hence, every diecast Collector has a world of possibilities when gathering diecast models from almost any period of time as early as models from 1885, when the first automobile driven by internal combustion was introduced by German inventor Karl Friedrich Benz, to actual models in modern car showcases. Diecast vehicles come in various scales, the most popular ranging from 1:28 to 1:64 scale, although many collectors prefer focusing their collections on the 1:43 and 1:50 scales. Diecast toys were originally designed for children, but the collecting boom started during the 1950’s when grown children stated to keep their cars instead of throwing them away and adults discovered them as valuable collectible items.
There is computer software that is made just for collecting diecast vehicles. Anyone who has a small or large diecast vehicle collection can easily keep track of what vehicle they have, the color, condition, cost, value, scale and lots of other info for each record (vehicle). This is the most easiest to use software of it’s kind, and it is made 100% for diecast collecting. The software is described in detail and you can download a free demo version of it at this website address:
By Robert W. BenjaminCopyright 2006 You may publish this article in your ezine, newsletter or on your website as long as it is reprinted in its entirety and without modification except for formatting needs or grammar corrections.