Property Investment for Beginners

by

dhirajkumar

Properties which were once beyond your budget reach are suddenly within your range. For those of you who have been smart enough to save money throughout the past bearish decade, now is the time to invest and take advantage of the opportunity, which has presented itself. In this Buzzle article, I shall share some tips on real estate investment for those of you, who are smart enough to recognize the opportunity this recessionary background has presented.

Tips for Property Investment

Any investment comes with its share of risks, which cannot be entirely eliminated but lessened through research and planning. Same goes with real estate investment. You have to do your homework and get your research right to end up on the winning side. Here are some tips for beginners.

Know about the Range of Real Estate Investment Options

Firstly, you need to begin with a study of the varied range of investment options in real estate, which you may consider. You may invest in buying residential houses, commercial properties, condos, apartments or purely specialize in land investment. There are a lot of options out there and you need to consider the entire range, to decide which would ideally suit your investment budget and align with your future plans.

Invest to Sell or Invest to Rent out Properties

There is the important decision of deciding whether you buy to rent or buy to sell again for a profit. The former option is open, if you buy residential properties. You can create a regular income source for yourself by investing in rental property.

Otherwise, you also have the option of entering the house flipping business, which is buying old houses, renovating them and selling them back again for profit. You may buy a piece of commercial property, hold it till the prices rise and sell it to make a substantial profit.

It\’s All About Location

Remember when it comes to property investment, it\’s all about location. The price of any real estate property is largely a function of location. The localities decide the price range and therefore you need to research the price trends according to location, before you make a purchase.

Research & Do the Math

Once you have decided on what kind of property you plan to buy, what purpose you intend to buy it for and are clear about the amount of money you are willing to spend, start researching real estate listings to find properties that fit the bill. Calculate the returns you plan to gain from the investment and the amount of mortgage loans you can afford to apply for.

Networking With Real Estate Agents

A real estate agent can make your job easier in finding properties that are exactly what you are looking for. Creating a good network of real estate agents who can point you towards good investment properties is essential. Real estate brokers can handle the legal affairs associated with purchase and sale of property for you. They can make an offer to owners on your behalf and negotiate on your behalf.

Making Financial Arrangements for the Investment

Once you have decided on the property and made an offer, you need to arrange for the money you plan to invest. A pooling up of your own savings and a mortgage loan if needed can cover the total investment amount. Talk to financial institutions and mortgage brokers for financing options.

The key to making good investment decisions in real estate lies in research. For a property, the location is the most important aspect of consideration and all other points come later. Good location, with access to resources in its vicinity, creates an opportunity for eventual growth of property value. With a pooling in of your own savings and a mortgage loan, you can buy strategically located properties and rent them to generate revenue, or sell them as the prices appreciate substantially. You can\’t eliminate risk, but minimize it by putting your money into properties with high potential of price appreciation. Get a good real estate agent to advise you and a mortgage broker to assist you in the arrangement of finance.

For more information about

Buy Apartments In Colombo

,

Buy Property Sri Lanka

,

Properties In Sri Lanka

and other details, please visit Krrish Square Real Estate

Article Source:

ArticleRich.com

byAlma Abell

Just when you least expect it, you may find yourself in need of a Tow Truck in Lumberton or Beaumont, Texas. You can find a reputable towing company that can rescue you from every imaginable situation. You may have experienced a breakdown or a blowout, stranding you on the side of a busy highway. With cars continuing to pass you at high rates of speed or exhibiting dangerous driving behaviors, you might feel as though your life is in danger. Your peace of mind will be restored when a tow truck pulls up next to you and carefully delivers your car to safety.

Tow trucks offer several services. They can handle private vehicle towing from residential streets or busy freeways, always with professional and caring service. Tow truck services include both light and heavy duty towing. The same careful, competent service is provided to luxury vehicles or an eighteen wheeler. If you are locked out of your car or have lost the keys, a Tow Truck in Lumberton can unlock your vehicle. This is especially important if your car is running or if a child is locked in your vehicle.

They can even tow your car from dirt roads or off road areas. If you have the misfortune to end up in a canal or any other body of water, tow trucks have the capability to provide underwater recovery. Another service provided by tow trucks is moving portable buildings. If you have a shed or a small structure that needs to be moved from one side of your property to the other or across town, a Tow Truck in Lumberton can complete that move for you. Tow truck companies provide towing services for removal of vehicles trespassing on private property and for auto clubs.

With Spanky’s Wrecker Service, a well trained team of specialists will respond to your call within a few minutes. They have been in business for twenty years and are ready to provide towing services seven days a week, twenty four hours a day. They can also bill your insurance for you. If you find yourself involved in a wreck, stuck on the side of the road, with a flat tire or other breakdown, the answer to your dilemma is a tow truck.

People go to there place of work everyday in other to get paid and at the end of the month or day there get paid and the money is not even enough to take care of their family, talkless of doing shopping or paying dept. but I tell you are looking for to end all this worry in you.

Global forex market is quiet different from other market like stick markets, global forex market runs for 24/7 a day and forex trading is globally that means its being traded throughout the world but depend on the time zone of your country but I tell you forex never stop it runs 24 hours a day as a result of this many investors trade 24 hours a day forex investments continue to profit due to the fact that there is always an open market.

Expert or gurus in forex are able to play upon the opening market or tips of global markets, by leveraging their money for or against a certain Exchange rate.

Since is not a market that stop you better position yourself for maximum profit from the market today. I will tell you that investors break to over $65 trillion dollars last year. That means investors have advantage of profit from $65 trillion dollars due to the exchange rates between one countries currency and another. You can make money from these exchanges rates as the market move in your favour. Global forex is a good home business, what you trade is the movement of the currencies. You’re to choose the amount you want to invest. The market is not responsible for the action you take but you are responsible for your actions, so think well before trading.

And let it be at the back of your mind that you’re trading with the people all over the world. You are not alone trading it and everyone wants profit. The good thing is that you trade it through the internet at the comfort of your home.

By Adriana J Noton

At some point in life, many homes will develop problems around their windows such as leaking moisture, air coming in around the edge of the window, accidental damage such as a baseball being thrown through the window, a window becoming old and worn, or a homeowner may just want to upgrade their windows when they are renovating or redesigning a room. Whatever the reason for replacing windows, homeowners will have to decide what type window replacement to use. Two types of popular replacement windows are vinyl and fiberglass replacement windows. Before choosing between the two, it is important to understand the difference between the two types of windows.

Below is a list of the differences between Vinyl and Fiberglass Replacement Windows:

Window Strength and Durability: Many experts say that fiberglass windows are much stronger and more durable than vinyl windows. Fiberglass windows are made of molten glass while vinyl windows are made from mixing ethylene with chlorine. In theory, fiberglass will last longer than vinyl. However, vinyl replacement windows are very durable and long lasting.

Replacement Window Cost: Fiberglass windows tend to be more expensive than vinyl replacement windows. There are many online retailers that sell vinyl replacements windows at very affordable prices. You can also find online deals for fiberglass replacement windows.

Functionality: Fiberglass windows are better able to withstand fluctuations in temperatures and weather such has strong winds. Fiberglass is composed of glass fibers and resins which are better able to expand and contract as the weather changes allowing it to maintain its integrity. However, vinyl allows less cold air through which makes it a good insulator.

Window Maintenance: Both vinyl and fiberglass replacement windows are very easy to maintain. Fiberglass replacement windows can be painted, but vinyl windows cannot be painted. However, vinyl replacement windows are available in a variety of beautiful colors that can be matched with any room. There are many online retailers that sell a wide variety of custom made vinyl windows. Fiberglass replacement windows are smooth which makes them easy to paint.

Environmental Concerns: Both vinyl and fiberglass replacement windows are very energy efficient so for homeowners looking to reduce their energy bills, either replacement window is a good choice. After concerns were raised about the release of dioxins in the air, the vinyl window industry reduced the amount of dioxin emissions by 70% making them safe. Fiberglass windows do not pose a health risk.

For homeowners, the look of a home is very important and they tend to invest a lot in the upkeep of the home. When it is time to replace a window, it is important to consider the differences between the various types of replacement windows and what style would best suit the home. When you learn about the differences and the pros and cons of each type, you will be better able to choose the best replacement window that fits your needs. Most importantly, you will make sure that you are completely satisfied with your chosen replacement window.

About the Author: Quality windows doors manufacturer offers a large selection of vinyl windows and doors, bay/bow windows. View our range of replacement windows and new construction patio doors Canada. All back with our Stellar Lifetime Warranty that’s transferable from builders to home-owners.

Source: isnare.com

Permanent Link: isnare.com/?aid=570494&ca=Home+Management

Submitted by: Sara Chambers

These days, computers are almost as common in households as telephones. Computers themselves do not cause any threat to individual security. When connected with networks and the chaos that is the World Wide Web, computers have become the tools that identity thieves and hackers use to extrapolate this chaos. In order to establish computer security, software companies have created devices to ward off the hazards and hassles of viruses, spyware, pop-ups and spam.

The first of these creations is anti-virus software. There are two main companies that offer this software: McAfee and Norton. These programs work to scan the files on your computer and check them for attributes that are in viruses or are often linked with viruses. These traits or attributes are often called virus definitions and need to be downloaded on a relatively regular basis. In addition to the files on your computer, files on CDs, floppy discs and e-mails can and should be filed. There is no question on this one: anti-virus software is vital to computer security.

Next on the list is spyware scanning software. Spyware occurs when certain websites run programs in the back ground of your computer while gleaning information from it. The information can be as benign as tracking what type of websites you look at, to actually acquiring passwords. Regardless of the type of spyware, it can slow your computer to a crawl and needs to be removed from your computer. Two popular software options are Spy Sweeper and Ad-ware.

Last, but certainly not least are pop-up blockers and span filters. Not only are pop-ups and spam annoying, but these often contain the spyware scanning software explained above. In addition, they can slow your computer down incredibly. And when you are angry at your computer, your computer is not secure!

In addition to these software items, there are a few more tricks you can use to keep your computer and your information secure. Password secure everything you can, and when you create the passwords, don t make them easy. Do not use your name, your birthday or your social security number. And, if you are on an unsecured wireless network, do not check your bank statements. These networks allow several people on them at one time. Remember, hackers are smart. You have to be smarter!

About the Author: Sara Chambers is a marketing consultant and an internet content manager for

computersecurityblog.com

Source:

isnare.com

Permanent Link:

isnare.com/?aid=28197&ca=Computers+and+Technology

By Charles Essmeier

If you have poor credit, or a past bankruptcy, it can be tough to take out a loan from a traditional lender. The payday loan business arose to offer short-term financing to individuals with little credit, and the industry is doing brisk business. There are now more payday loan stores in the United States than McDonald’s, Burger King and Subway restaurants combined.

The interest rates, or “fees” charged for payday loans can amount to 400% per year when viewed as annual interest. While they may be costly, quick cash loans are, indeed, easy to obtain, and borrowers need only have a bank account and a steady job to qualify.

An offshoot of the brick and mortar cash advance loan industry is the online lending business, and there are now thousands of Web sites that provide short-term loans. The lenders say that they can put the cash directly into your bank account in as little as 24 hours. Online loans are just as easy to obtain as financing from payday loan stores and they are open for business 24 hours a day. The convenience of doing business right from your home, rather than driving down to your local lender, has motivated countless people to take out loans on the Internet. Consumers should be aware, though, that taking out a loan from such lenders can be quite risky.

The risks linked to taking out a loan from online lenders include the following:

Potential identity theft – By giving out financial details to people that you don’t know via the Internet, customers face the risk of identity theft. Identity theft is a multimillion dollar criminal enterprise and those who engage in it are becoming more proficient by the day.

No limits on terms – If you live in New York, your nearby lender is bound by lending laws established by that state and you are protected by those laws. If you obtain cash online, the loan is subject to the laws of the jurisdiction in which the online lender resides, but you may have no protection. If the lender is located outside the United States, there may be no limits at all as to how much they may charge you. There may be nothing that you can do if the lender doesn’t honor the terms of your agreement.

Financial risk – Stealing from your bank account is a potential hazard of engaging in business with an online company. You really don’t know who the online lenders are or what their motives might be. Since Internet lenders put money into your bank account, they could theoretically take money out of your checking account, as well.

There are often alternatives to high priced lending, and you would be well advised to seek them out rather than to borrow money at high interest. If you absolutely must take out a cash advance loan, you would be better off doing so locally and in person, rather than on the World Wide Web.

About the Author: Copyright 2007 by Retro Marketing. Charles Essmeier is the owner of

Retro-Marketing.com

, a site devoted to affiliate marketing, and

MendYourDebt.com

, a site devoted to debt consolidation, credit counseling, payday loans, financial scams and personal bankruptcy.

Source:

isnare.com

Permanent Link:

isnare.com/?aid=137905&ca=Finances

We want to make sure appliance repair techs can get their jobs done right, safely, and efficiently by showing up with the right tools. This list is informed by years of appliance repair experience, as well as recommendations from industry veterans.

Disclaimer: This list is a great place to start and works for many repair jobs, but be aware that some require specialized tools not shown here.

1) Rechargeable Flashlight: Might seem obvious, but many repair jobs require working in tight spaces with limited natural/environmental light. Never worry about needing to replace batteries while on a job with a rechargeable flashlight, like this one you can find on Amazon.

2) Pocket Thermometer: Check that your refrigerator and freezer temperature-related repairs are complete with this pocket-size tool.

3) Utility Knife: Designed to be a lightweight, multi-purpose cutting tool, this knife will help with marking cut lines, trimming plastic or wood materials, or to cutting tape, cords, strapping, cardboard, or other packaging material.

4) Screwdriver Set: One of the most used appliance repair tools. Be prepared for any job by purchasing a battery-operated driver with Phillips head 1/4”, 5/16”, 3/8” magnetic nut drivers plus T10, T15, and T20 Torx drivers. Today’s battery-operated drivers will last a week without a recharge.

Just in case the battery-operated unit conks out, I recommend having Phillips and flat head screwdrivers both large and small in reserve.

5) Wrench Set: As with your screwdriver and nut driver sets, you’ll want to have an SAE and Metric-compatible wrench set. While they are seldom used and never carried into a customer’s house, they are kept in reserve.

6) Adjustable Wrench: This wrench features a jaw that is adjustable to accommodate various bolt and nut sizes. It’s particularly helpful with hard-to-reach fasteners.

7) Analog Multimeter: A tool that measures electrical voltage, resistance, and current, and is essential for diagnosing electrical problems. As Uncle Harry preaches I have found an analog multimeter far more useful and less misleading than a digital one.

8) Needlenose Pliers and Wire Cutters: Two other tools that you’ll want to have are a set of needlenose pliers and wire cutters. The first is great for dealing with small pieces, as well as bending or cutting wires. The second is pretty self-explanatory.

9) Putty Knife: Along with being used for spreading putty, this tool can aid in scraping and prying.

10) Rubber Gloves: Protect your hands from the combination of brute strength required and the endless sharp edges of sheet metal surrounding your hands (not to mention exposed screws).

11) Pipe Thread Sealant: Use this stuff on appliances’ threaded pipe fittings to prevent leaks. Sets quickly and firmly bonds to various materials, such as PVC, steel, and copper.

12) Telescoping Magnetic Pick-Up Tool: Spare yourself some headaches and time by purchasing this tool. It can save your life when you drop odd sized screws down into hard to reach spots of the appliance. This is a must-have.

13) 8′ Test Cord: A standard household extension cord with the female end cut off and insulated alligator clips soldered on.

14) Turkey Baster and Hand-Held Steamer: Use these tools for refrigerator-specific jobs where the drain plug is freezing and causing a blockage. It’ll help you effectively melt the ice and complete a service call in no-time.

Let’s face it. As a parent, you do not know everything that you need to know to be able to help your student with their studies. While you may have had an excellent education background, there are still areas that you are not familiar with when it comes to the things that your student is learning. The syllabus changes every couple of years, and the level of difficulty of what our children is studying even at tender ages is frightening.

Without a doubt, children who are left alone to cope with their schoolwork are struggling, especially when they are competing with their peers who may be receiving help from multiple sources. Thus, parents today are increasingly considering giving their child help through hiring home tutors. Home tutors can greatly help your child by providing extra guidance with schoolwork and by providing additional practice through tuition assignments.

Some parents nevertheless decide to take matters in their own hands and try to tutor their child on their own. One of the downsides that you will see by trying to avoid having tuition, especially in countries such as Singapore, is that your student will be limited to your own knowledge. Even though you may have a great deal of it to offer, tuition will be able to specifically help your child in the areas that they are struggling the most.

When education is tough and necessary like in Singapore, tuition is a great tool because it is difficult to keep up to date with everything that our students are learning in school. For many, our education regarding certain fields of study stops after we finish school. Furthermore, we possess limited knowledge and often while we think we remember most of the information we have learned in the past and present, we will remember everything that we have ever learned about it. With the mounting responsibilities of a parent, it is hardly possible to outdo a dedicated home tutor who keeps up to date with the latest trends that are available regarding their field of study.

Home tutors are a great way to let parents sit back and allow a professional to help their student when they need it the most. They also help students with areas where the parent is not familiar or lacks knowledge about. Having tuition and assignments are crucial for the success of a struggling student and parents should seek them out quickly so that the student does not fall behind in class.

So, when you find that your student is struggling in class, don’t hold them back by only providing them with the information that you have. Instead, rely on tuition assignments to help them develop the skills necessary to be successful. Tuition will help you to provide the correct information to your student in a way that they understand it.

One of the ways you can hire a reliable home tutor is to engage an online tuition agency. Such tuition agencies often provides tutors that have the knowledge, training and education to best help your children. Select larger tuition agencies as they often handle dozens of tuition assignments daily, making them more experienced and equipped to help you.

People around the world rely on tuition to help their chilren find their way when they have strayed from the education path. Tuition is a fantastic tool that parents should rely on so that their students can prepare for the future.

General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon

The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a multirole jet fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force (USAF). Designed as a lightweight day fighter, it evolved into a successful all-weather multirole aircraft. Over 4,400 aircraft have been built since production was approved in 1976. Though no longer being purchased by the U.S. Air Force, improved versions are still being built for export customers. In 1993, General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing business to the Lockheed Corporation, which in turn became part of Lockheed Martin after a 1995 merger with Martin Marietta.

The Fighting Falcon is a dogfighter with numerous innovations including a frameless bubble canopy for better visibility, side-mounted control stick to ease control while maneuvering, a seat reclined 30 degrees to reduce the effect of g-forces on the pilot, and the first use of a relaxed static stability/fly-by-wire flight control system that makes it a highly nimble aircraft. The F-16 has an internal M61 Vulcan cannon and has 11 hardpoints for mounting weapons, and other mission equipment. Although the F-16’s official name is “Fighting Falcon”, it is known to its pilots as the “Viper”, due to it resembling a viper snake and after the Battlestar Galactica Colonial Viper starfighter.

In addition to USAF active, reserve, and air national guard units, the aircraft is used by the USAF aerial demonstration team, the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds, and as an adversary/aggressor aircraft by the United States Navy. The F-16 has also been procured to serve in the air forces of 25 other nations.

Experience in the Vietnam War revealed the need for air superiority fighters and better air-to-air training for fighter pilots. Based on his experiences in the Korean War and as a fighter tactics instructor in the early 1960s Colonel John Boyd with mathematician Thomas Christie developed the Energy-Maneuverability theory to model a fighter aircraft’s performance in combat. Boyd’s work called for a small, lightweight aircraft with an increased thrust-to-weight ratio. In the late 1960s, Boyd gathered a group of like-minded innovators that became known as the Fighter Mafia and in 1969 they secured DoD funding for General Dynamics and Northrop to study design concepts based on the theory.

Air Force F-X proponents remained hostile to the concept because they perceived it as a threat to the F-15 program. However, the Advanced Day Fighter concept, renamed F-XX gained civilian political support under the reform-minded Deputy Secretary of Defense David Packard, who favored the idea of competitive prototyping. As a result in May 1971, the Air Force Prototype Study Group was established, with Boyd a key member, and two of its six proposals would be funded, one being the Lightweight Fighter (LWF). The Request for Proposals issued on 6 January 1972 called for a 20,000-pound (9,100 kg) class air-to-air day fighter with a good turn rate, acceleration and range, and optimized for combat at speeds of Mach 0.6–1.6 and altitudes of 30,000–40,000 feet (9,100–12,000 m). This was the region where USAF studies predicted most future air combat would occur. The anticipated average flyaway cost of a production version was $3 million. This production plan, though, was only notional as the USAF had no firm plans to procure the winner.

Five companies responded and in 1972, the Air Staff selected General Dynamics’ Model 401 and Northrop’s P-600 for the follow-on prototype development and testing phase. GD and Northrop were awarded contracts worth $37.9 million and $39.8 million to produce the YF-16 and YF-17, respectively, with first flights of both prototypes planned for early 1974. To overcome resistance in the Air Force hierarchy, the Fighter Mafia and other LWF proponents successfully advocated the idea of complementary fighters in a high-cost/low-cost force mix. The “high/low mix” would allow the USAF to be able to afford sufficient fighters for its overall fighter force structure requirements. The mix gained broad acceptance by the time of the flyoff between the prototypes, and would define the relationship of the LWF and the F-15.

The first YF-16 was rolled out on 13 December 1973, and its 90-minute maiden flight was made at the Air Force Flight Test Center (AFFTC) at Edwards AFB, California, on 2 February 1974. Its actual first flight occurred accidentally during a high-speed taxi test on 20 January 1974. While gathering speed, a roll-control oscillation caused a fin of the port-side wingtip-mounted missile and then the starboard stabilator to scrape the ground, and the aircraft then began to veer off the runway. The GD test pilot, Phil Oestricher, decided to lift off to avoid crashing the machine, and safely landed it six minutes later. The slight damage was quickly repaired and the official first flight occurred on time. The YF-16’s first supersonic flight was accomplished on 5 February 1974, and the second YF-16 prototype first flew on 9 May 1974. This was followed by the first flights of the Northrop’s YF-17 prototypes on 9 June and 21 August 1974, respectively. During the flyoff, the YF-16s completed 330 sorties for a total of 417 flight hours; the YF-17s flew 288 sorties, covering 345 hours.

Increased interest would turn the LWF into a serious acquisition program. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) allies Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Norway were seeking to replace their F-104G fighter-bombers. In early 1974, they reached an agreement with the U.S. that if the USAF ordered the LWF winner, they would consider ordering it as well. The USAF also needed to replace its F-105 and F-4 fighter-bombers. The U.S. Congress sought greater commonality in fighter procurements by the Air Force and Navy, and in August 1974 redirected Navy funds to a new Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF) program that would be a navalized fighter-bomber variant of the LWF. The four NATO allies had formed the “Multinational Fighter Program Group” (MFPG) and pressed for a U.S. decision by December 1974. The U.S. Air Force then advanced its plans to announce the LWF winner from May 1975 to the beginning of the year, and accelerated testing.

To reflect this more serious intent to procure a new fighter-bomber design, the LWF program was rolled into a new Air Combat Fighter (ACF) competition in an announcement by U.S. Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger in April 1974. Schlesinger also made it clear that any ACF order would be for aircraft in addition to the F-15, which extinguished opposition to the LWF. ACF also raised the stakes for GD and Northrop because it brought in further competitors intent on securing the lucrative order that was touted at the time as “the arms deal of the century”. These were Dassault-Breguet’s Mirage F1M-53, the SEPECAT Jaguar, and a proposed derivative of the Saab 37 Viggen named the “Saab 37E Eurofighter”. Northrop offered the P-530 Cobra, which was very similar to its YF-17. The Jaguar and Cobra were dropped by the MFPG early on, leaving two European and the two U.S. candidates. On 11 September 1974, the U.S. Air Force confirmed firm plans to place an order for the winning ACF design sufficient to equip five tactical fighter wings. On 13 January 1975, Secretary of the Air Force John L. McLucas announced that the YF-16 had been selected as the winner of the ACF competition.

The chief reasons given by the Secretary for the decision were the YF-16’s lower operating costs, greater range and maneuver performance that was “significantly better” than that of the YF-17, especially at near-supersonic and supersonic speeds. Another advantage was the fact that the YF-16 – unlike the YF-17 – employed the Pratt & Whitney F100 turbofan engine, which was the same powerplant used by the F-15; such commonality would lower the unit costs of engines for both programs.

Shortly after selection of the YF-16, Secretary McLucas revealed that the USAF planned to order at least 650 and up to 1,400 of the production F-16 version. In the Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF) competition, the Navy announced on 2 May 1975 that it selected the YF-17 as the basis for what would become the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet.

The U.S. Air Force initially ordered 15 “Full-Scale Development” (FSD) aircraft (11 single-seat and four two-seat models) for its flight test program, but this was reduced to eight (six F-16A single-seaters and two F-16B two-seaters). The YF-16 design was altered for the production F-16. The fuselage was lengthened by 10.6 in (0.269 m), a larger nose radome was fitted to house the AN/APG-66 radar, wing area was increased from 280 sq ft (26 m2) to 300 sq ft (28 m2), the tailfin height was decreased slightly, the ventral fins were enlarged, two more stores stations were added, and a single side-hinged nosewheel door replaced the original double doors. These modifications increased the F-16’s weight approximately 25% over that of the YF-16 prototypes.

Manufacture of the FSD F-16s got underway at General Dynamics’ Fort Worth, Texas plant in late 1975, with the first example, an F-16A, being rolled out on 20 October 1976, followed by its first flight on 8 December. The initial two-seat model achieved its first flight on 8 August 1977. The initial production-standard F-16A flew for the first time on 7 August 1978 and its delivery was accepted by the USAF on 6 January 1979. The F-16 was given its formal nickname of “Fighting Falcon” on 21 July 1980, entering USAF operational service with the 388th Tactical Fighter Wing at Hill AFB on 1 October 1980.

On 7 June 1975, the four European partners, now known as the European Participation Group, signed up for 348 aircraft at the Paris Air Show. This was split among the European Participation Air Forces (EPAF) as 116 for Belgium, 58 for Denmark, 102 for the Netherlands, and 72 for Norway. These would be produced on two European production lines, one in the Netherlands at Fokker’s Schiphol-Oost facility and the other at SABCA’s Gossellies plant in Belgium; production would be divided among them as 184 and 164 units, respectively. Norway’s Kongsberg Vaapenfabrikk and Denmark’s Terma A/S also manufactured parts and subassemblies for the EPAF aircraft. European co-production was officially launched on 1 July 1977 at the Fokker factory. Beginning in mid-November 1977, Fokker-produced components were shipped to Fort Worth for assembly of fuselages, which were in turn shipped back to Europe (initially to Gossellies starting in January 1978); final assembly of EPAF-bound aircraft began at the Belgian plant on 15 February 1978, with deliveries to the Belgian Air Force beginning in January 1979. The Dutch line started up in April 1978 and delivered its first aircraft to the Royal Netherlands Air Force in June 1979. In 1980 the first aircraft were delivered to the Royal Norwegian Air Force by SABCA and to the Royal Danish Air Force by Fokker.

Since then, a further production line has been established at Ankara, Turkey, where Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) has produced 232 Block 30/40/50 F-16s under license for the Turkish Air Force during the late 1980s and 1990s, and has 30 Block 50 Advanced underway for delivery from 2010; TAI also built 46 Block 40s for Egypt in the mid-1990s. Korean Aerospace Industries opened another production line for the KF-16 program, producing 140 Block 52s from the mid-1990s to mid-2000s. If India selects the F-16IN for its Medium Multi-Role Combat Aircraft procurement, a sixth F-16 production line will be established in that nation to produce at least 108 fighters.

One change made during production was the need for more pitch control to avoid deep stall conditions at high angles of attack, this issue was known about in development but had originally been discounted. Model tests of the YF-16 conducted by the Langley Research Center revealed a potential problem, but no other laboratory was able to duplicate it. YF-16 flight tests were not sufficient to expose the issue, it required later flight testing on the FSD aircraft to demonstrate there was a real concern. In response, the areas of the horizontal stabilizer were increased 25%; this so-called “big tail” was introduced on the Block 15 aircraft in 1981 and retrofitted later on earlier production aircraft. Besides significantly reducing (though not eliminating) the risk of deep stalls, the larger horizontal tails also improved stability and permitted faster takeoff rotation.

In the 1980s, the Multinational Staged Improvement Program (MSIP) was conducted to evolve new capabilities for the F-16, mitigate risks during technology development, and ensure the aircraft’s worth. The program upgraded the F-16 in three stages. The MSIP process permitted the introduction of new capabilities quicker, at lower costs and with reduced risks, compared to traditional independent programs to upgrade and modernize aircraft. The F-16 has been involved in other upgrade programs including service life extension programs in the 2000s.

The F-16 is a single-engined, supersonic, multi-role tactical aircraft. The F-16 was designed to be a cost-effective combat “workhorse” that can perform various kinds of missions and maintain around-the-clock readiness. It is much smaller and lighter than its predecessors, but uses advanced aerodynamics and avionics, including the first use of a relaxed static stability/fly-by-wire (RSS/FBW) flight control system, to achieve enhanced maneuver performance. Highly nimble, the F-16 can pull 9-g maneuvers and can reach a maximum speed of over Mach 2.

The Fighting Falcon includes innovations such as a frameless bubble canopy for better visibility, side-mounted control stick to ease control during combat maneuvers, and reclined seat to reduce the effect of g-forces on the pilot. The F-16 has an internal M61 Vulcan cannon in the left wing root and has 11 hardpoints for mounting various missiles, bombs and pods. It was also the first fighter aircraft purpose built to sustain 9-g turns. It has a thrust-to-weight ratio greater than one, providing power to climb and accelerate vertically.

Early models could also be armed with up to six AIM-9 Sidewinder heat-seeking short-range air-to-air missiles (AAM), including a single missile mounted on a dedicated rail launcher on each wingtip. Some variants can also employ the AIM-7 Sparrow medium-range radar-guided AAM, and more recent versions can be equipped with the AIM-120 AMRAAM. It can also carry other AAM; a wide variety of air-to-ground missiles, rockets or bombs; electronic countermeasures (ECM), navigation, targeting or weapons pods; and fuel tanks on eleven hardpoints – six under the wings, two on wingtips and three under the fuselage.

The F-16 design employs a cropped-delta planform incorporating wing-fuselage blending and forebody vortex-control strakes; a fixed-geometry, underslung air intake inlet supplying airflow to the single turbofan jet engine; a conventional tri-plane empennage arrangement with all-moving horizontal “stabilator” tailplanes; a pair of ventral fins beneath the fuselage aft of the wing’s trailing edge; a single-piece, bird-proof “bubble” canopy; and a tricycle landing gear configuration with the aft-retracting, steerable nose gear deploying a short distance behind the inlet lip. There is a boom-style aerial refueling receptacle located a short distance behind the rear of the canopy. Split-flap speedbrakes are located at the aft end of the wing-body fairing, and an arrestor hook is mounted underneath the aft fuselage. Another fairing is situated at the base of the vertical tail, beneath the bottom of the rudder, and is used to house various items of equipment such as ECM gear or drag chutes. Several later F-16 models, such as the F-16I variant of the Block 50 aircraft, also have a long dorsal fairing “bulge” that runs along the “spine” of the fuselage from the rear of the cockpit to the tail fairing; these fairings can be used to house additional equipment or fuel.

The air intake was designed to be “far enough forward to allow a gradual bend in the air duct up to the engine face to minimize flow losses and far enough aft so it wouldn’t weigh too much or be too draggy or destabilizing.”

The F-16 was designed to be relatively inexpensive to build and much simpler to maintain than earlier-generation fighters. The airframe is built with about 80% aviation-grade aluminum alloys, 8% steel, 3% composites, and 1.5% titanium. Control surfaces such as the leading-edge flaps, tailerons, and ventral fins make extensive use of bonded aluminum honeycomb structural elements and graphite epoxy laminate skins. The F-16A had 228 access panels over the entire aircraft, about 80% of which can be reached without work stands. The number of lubrication points, fuel line connections, and replaceable modules was significantly reduced compared to its predecessors.

Although the USAF’s LWF program had called for an aircraft structural life of only 4,000 flight hours, and capable of achieving 7.33 g with 80% internal fuel, GD’s engineers decided from the start to design the F-16’s airframe life to last to 8,000 hours and for 9-g maneuvers on full internal fuel. This proved advantageous when the aircraft’s mission was changed from solely air-to-air combat to multi-role operations. Changes over time in actual versus planned operational usage and continued weight growth due to the addition of further systems have required several structural strengthening programs.

Aerodynamic studies in the early 1960s demonstrated that the phenomenon known as “vortex lift” could be beneficially harnessed by the adoption of highly swept wing configurations to reach higher angles of attack through use of the strong leading edge vortex flow off a slender lifting surface. Since the F-16 was being optimized for high agility in air combat, GD’s designers chose a slender cropped-delta wing with a leading edge sweep of 40° and a straight trailing edge. To improve its ability to perform in a wide range of maneuvers, a variable-camber wing with a NACA 64A-204 airfoil was selected. The camber is adjusted through the use of leading-edge and trailing edge flaperons linked to a digital flight control system (FCS) that automatically adjusts them throughout the flight envelope. The F-16 has a moderate wing loading, which is lower when fuselage lift is considered.

This vortex lift effect can be increased by the addition of an extension of the leading edge of the wing at its root, the juncture with the fuselage, known as a strake. The strakes act as a sort of additional slender, elongated, short-span, triangular wing running from the actual wing root to a point further forward on the fuselage. Blended fillet-like into the fuselage, including along with the wing root, the strake generates a high-speed vortex that remains attached to the top of the wing as the angle of attack increases, thereby generating additional lift. This allows the aircraft to achieve angles of attack beyond the point at which it would normally stall. The use of strakes also allows a smaller, lower-aspect-ratio wing, which in turn increases roll rates and directional stability, while decreasing aircraft weight. The resulting deeper wingroots also increase structural strength and rigidity, reduce structural weight, and increase internal fuel volume.

The F-16 was the first production fighter aircraft intentionally designed to be slightly aerodynamically unstable. This technique, called “relaxed static stability” (RSS), was incorporated to further enhance the aircraft’s maneuver performance. Most aircraft are designed with positive static stability, which induces an aircraft to return to its original attitude following a disturbance. This hampers maneuverability, as the tendency to remain in its current attitude opposes the pilot’s effort to maneuver; on the other hand, an aircraft with negative static stability will, in the absence of control input, readily deviate from level and controlled flight. Therefore, an aircraft with negative static stability will be more maneuverable than one that is positively stable. When supersonic, a negatively stable aircraft actually exhibits a more positive-trending (and in the F-16’s case, a net positive) static stability due to aerodynamic forces shifting aft between subsonic and supersonic flight. At subsonic speeds the fighter is constantly on the verge of going out of control.

To counter this tendency to depart from controlled flight—and avoid the need for constant minute trimming inputs by the pilot, the F-16 has a quadruplex (four-channel) fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system (FLCS). The flight control computer (FLCC), which is the key component of the FLCS, accepts the pilot’s input from the stick and rudder controls, and manipulates the control surfaces in such a way as to produce the desired result without inducing a loss of control. The FLCC also takes thousands of measurements per second of the aircraft’s attitude, and automatically makes corrections to counter deviations from the flight path that were not input by the pilot; coordinated turn is also obtained in such a way that it updates itself by thousands of instructions and produces the required control deflection that comes from dynamics of F-16, thereby allowing for stable flight. This has led to a common aphorism among F-16 pilots: “You don’t fly an F-16; it flies you.”

The FLCC further incorporates a series of limiters that govern movement in the three main axes based on the jet’s current attitude, airspeed and angle of attack, and prevent movement of the control surfaces that would induce an instability such as a slip or skid, or a high angle of attack inducing a stall. The limiters also act to prevent maneuvering that would place more than a 9 g load on the pilot or airframe.

Though the FLCC’s limiters work well to limit each axis of movement, it was discovered in early production flight testing that “assaulting” multiple limiters at high angles of attack and low speed can result in angles of attack far exceeding the 25-degree threshold of limiting. This is colloquially referred to as simply “departing”. Depending on the attitude of the aircraft, it may settle into a deep stall; a near-freefall at 50° to 60° AOA, either upright or inverted. In this “pocket” of very high AOA, the aircraft’s attitude is stable, but being far above stall AOA, the control surfaces do not operate effectively. Further, the pitch limiter of the jet, sensing the high AOA, “freezes” the stabilators in an extreme pitch-up or pitch-down in an attempt to recover. To recover, an override is provided that disables the pitch-limiting, which then allows the pilot to “rock” the aircraft’s nose up and down using pitch control, eventually overcoming the 50° threshold and achieving a nose-down attitude which will reduce AOA and allow a return to controlled flight.

Unlike the YF-17 which featured a FBW system with traditional hydromechanical controls serving as a backup, the F-16’s designers took the innovative step of eliminating mechanical linkages between the stick and rudder pedals and the aerodynamic control surfaces. The F-16’s sole reliance on electronics and wires to relay flight commands, instead of the usual cables and mechanical linkage controls, gained the F-16 the early moniker of “the electric jet”. The quadruplex design permits “graceful degradation” in flight control response in that the loss of one channel renders the FLCS a “triplex” system. The FLCC began as an analog system on the A/B variants, but has been supplanted by a digital computer system beginning with the F-16C/D Block 40.

The F-16 program has suffered from controls that were sensitive to static electricity or electrostatic discharge (ESD), including 70–80% of the electronics on the C/D models sensitive to ESD in the early 1980s.

The F-16A/B was originally equipped with the Westinghouse AN/APG-66 fire-control radar. Its slotted planar-array antenna was designed to be sufficiently compact to fit into the F-16’s relatively small nose. In uplook mode, the APG-66 uses a low pulse-repetition frequency (PRF) for medium- and high-altitude target detection in a low-clutter environment, and in downlook employs a medium PRF for heavy clutter environments. It has four operating frequencies within the X band, and provides four air-to-air and seven air-to-ground operating modes for combat, even at night or in bad weather. The Block 15’s APG-66(V)2 model added a new, more powerful signal processor, higher output power, improved reliability, and increased range in a clutter or jamming environments. The Mid-Life Update (MLU) program further upgrades this to the APG-66(V)2A model, which features higher speed and memory.

The AN/APG-68, an evolution of the APG-66, was introduced with the F-16C/D Block 25. The APG-68 has greater range and resolution, as well as 25 operating modes, including ground-mapping, Doppler beam-sharpening, ground moving target, sea target, and track-while-scan (TWS) for up to 10 targets. The Block 40/42’s APG-68(V)1 model added full compatibility with Lockheed Martin Low-Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infra-Red for Night (LANTIRN) pods, and a high-PRF pulse-Doppler track mode to provide continuous-wave (CW) target illumination for semi-active radar-homing (SARH) missiles like the AIM-7 Sparrow. The Block 50/52 F-16s initially received the more reliable APG-68(V)5 which has a programmable signal processor employing Very-High-Speed Integrated Circuit (VHSIC) technology. The Advanced Block 50/52 (or 50+/52+) are equipped with the APG-68(V)9 radar which has a 30% greater air-to-air detection range, and a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) mode for high-resolution mapping and target detection and recognition. In August 2004, Northrop Grumman received a contract to begin upgrading the APG-68 radars of the Block 40/42/50/52 aircraft to the (V)10 standard, which will provide the F-16 with all-weather autonomous detection and targeting for the use of Global Positioning System (GPS)-aided precision weapons. It also adds SAR mapping and terrain-following (TF) modes, as well as interleaving of all modes.

The F-16E/F is outfitted with Northrop Grumman’s AN/APG-80 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar, making it only the third fighter to be so equipped. Northrop Grumman is continuing development upon this latest radar, to form the Scalable Agile Beam Radar (SABR). In July 2007, Raytheon announced that it was developing a new Raytheon Next Generation Radar (RANGR) based on its earlier AN/APG-79 AESA radar as an alternative candidate to Northrop Grumman’s AN/APG-68 and AN/APG-80 for the F-16.

The powerplant first selected for the single-engined F-16 was the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200 afterburning turbofan, a slightly modified version of the F100-PW-100 used by the F-15. Rated at 23,830 lbf (106.0 kN) thrust, it remained the standard F-16 engine through the Block 25, except for new-build Block 15s with the Operational Capability Upgrade (OCU). The OCU introduced the 23,770 lbf (105.7 kN) F100-PW-220, which was also installed on Block 32 and 42 aircraft; the main difference being a Digital Electronic Engine Control (DEEC) unit, which improved engine reliability and reduced the risk of engine stalls. Added to the F-16 production line in 1988, the “-220” also supplanted the F-15’s “-100,” increasing commonality. Many of the “-220” jet engines on Block 25 and later aircraft were upgraded from mid-1997 to the “-220E” standard, which enhanced reliability and engine maintainability; the changes allowed for a 35% reduction of unscheduled engine removals.

Development of the F100-PW-220/220E was the result of the USAF’s Alternate Fighter Engine (AFE) program (colloquially known as “the Great Engine War”), which also saw the entry of General Electric as an F-16 engine provider. Its F110-GE-100 turbofan required modification of the F-16’s inlet; the original inlet limited the GE jet’s maximum thrust to 25,735 lbf (114.5 kN), while the new Modular Common Inlet Duct allowed the F110 to achieve its maximum thrust of 28,984 lbf (128.9 kN) in afterburner. (To distinguish between aircraft equipped with these two engines and inlets, from the Block 30 series on, blocks ending in “0” (e.g., Block 30) are powered by GE, and blocks ending in “2” (e.g., Block 32) are fitted with Pratt & Whitney engines.)

Further development by these competitors under the Increased Performance Engine (IPE) effort led to the 29,588 lbf (131.6 kN) F110-GE-129 on the Block 50 and 29,160 lbf (129.4 kN) F100-PW-229 on the Block 52. F-16s began flying with these IPE engines on 22 October 1991 and 22 October 1992, respectively. Altogether, of the 1,446 F-16C/Ds ordered by the USAF, 556 were fitted with F100-series engines and 890 with F110s. The United Arab Emirates’ Block 60 is powered by the General Electric F110-GE-132 turbofan, which is rated at a maximum thrust of 32,500 lbf (144.6 kN), the highest ever developed for the F-16 aircraft.

Due to their ubiquity, F-16s have participated in numerous conflicts, most of them in the Middle East.

The F-16 is being used by the USAF active, reserve, and Air National Guard units, the USAF aerial demonstration team, the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds, and as an adversary/aggressor aircraft by the United States Navy.

The U.S. Air Force has flown the F-16 in combat during Operation Desert Storm in 1991, and in the Balkans later in the 1990s. F-16s have patrolled the no fly zones in Iraq during Northern Watch and Southern Watch. They have served during the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq in the 2000s. Most recently, the U.S. has deployed them to enforce the no-fly zone in Libya.

The F-16 is scheduled to remain in service with the U.S. Air Force until 2025. The planned replacement is the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, which will gradually begin replacing a number of multirole aircraft among the program’s member nations.

The F-16’s first air-to-air combat success was achieved by the Israeli Air Force (IAF) over the Bekaa Valley on 28 April 1981, against a Syrian Mi-8 helicopter, which was downed with cannon fire. On 7 June 1981, eight Israeli F-16s, escorted by F-15s, executed Operation Opera, their first employment in a significant air-to-ground operation. This raid severely damaged Osirak, an Iraqi nuclear reactor under construction near Baghdad, to prevent the regime of Saddam Hussein from using the reactor for the creation of nuclear weapons.

The following year, during Operation Peace for Galilee (Lebanon War) Israeli F-16s engaged Syrian aircraft in one of the largest air battles involving jet aircraft, which began on 9 June and continued for two more days. Israeli Air Force F-16s were credited with numerous air-to-air kills during the conflict. F-16s were also used in their ground-attack role for strikes against targets in Lebanon. IAF F-16s participated in the 2006 Lebanon War and during the attacks in the Gaza strip in December 2008.

During the Soviet-Afghan war, between May 1986 and January 1989, Pakistan Air Force (PAF) F-16s shot down at least 10 intruders from Afghanistan.

The Pakistan Air Force has used its F-16s in various foreign and internal military exercises, such as the “Indus Vipers” exercise in 2008 conducted jointly with Turkey. Since May 2009, the PAF has also been using their F-16 fleet to attack militant positions and support the Pakistan Army’s operations in North-West Pakistan against the Taliban insurgency.

The Royal Netherlands Air Force, Belgian Air Force, Turkish Air Force, Royal Danish Air Force, and Royal Norwegian Air Force, and Venezuela have flown the F-16 on combat missions. A Dutch F-16AM shot down a Serbian MiG-29 during the Kosovo War in 1999. Belgian and Danish F-16s also supported operations in Kosovo.

References

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Submitted by: Mariecar Cervancia

Even with the last few years increased Public relations campaign and an unprecedented help from the authorities, people haven t quite totally bought to the tankless water heater technology. The primary culprit of course, is the sticker surprise that greets possible buyers. Even with offers of discounts along with other rewards, most are careful of the big purchase.

Today, planning tankless is a sign of keeping up with the periods and technology, of being environmentally conscious, and of being aware of the charge and savings for the purchaser.Householders think any good quality property growth company to involve these appliances in their properties. They will certainly request them in one that s discussing about easy

enjoying and worry-free homes.

Being subjected to the many advantages of switching into gas tankless water heaters with the enormous educational campaigns undertaken by both the business market and individuals focused on selecting eco-friendly or more environmentally friendly options to everyday living, many consumers have become aware that the technology is hardly new or untried. People are now more informed in regards to the popularity of tankless water heater use in Asia and europe.

Still, converting into a tankless device is not without concerns. As complex as they are, tankless water heaters are not perfect; but a lot of professionals still believe their shortcomings are a development over the conventional tank-style heating unit.

Other than the price, concerns about tankless solutions basically come down to:

Loss of hot water when there is reduced water supply. Because it sometimes transpires, water flow can fluctuate; based on the particular system, a tankless water heater needs a particular quantity of water supply for the heater to turn on.

The strange case of the cold water sandwich. Once again, it has something related to water flow fluctuation. The cold water sandwich effect is a thing that occurs with every tankless water heater. It occurs when the faucet is turned on, off, and on again; a slug of cold water ends up held in between the hot water supply.

However ,, considering the future, individuals do understand what the smarter option is. That is why real estate brokers and developers have been fast to leap on the environmentally friendly bandwagon, highlighting every possible environmentally friendly characteristic they can on their property buildings. Top among these features is the gas tankless water heater. It is quickly becoming a qualification in these brand new homes.

When consumers now encounter this choice-whether to go tankless or not-it s not only about doing the clever pick when it comes to funds. As most now are starting to understand, it is difficult to put a price tag on the future and on the environment.

With a lot of individuals more concerned about tightening their costs and saving for the upcoming, energy efficiency and working with their everyday power utilization is prime concern. That is why they generally request for the setting up of gas tankless water heaters when the time to change their previous tank-style heaters comes. All of them would like the savings,

convenience, and unrestricted hot water that only a tankless water heater can deliver.

About the Author: Learn more about tankless water heaters and what it can do for you. Check them out now at

gas-tankless-water-heater.org/

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Source:

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